In the last two decades international research has traced expanding ideas about masculinity that move far beyond the traditional notions of the 'male sex role' and 'natural' masculinity. Major trends (based on Connell 2000) include:
There is no one universal pattern of masculinity. In different places and times, different kinds of masculinity emerge. In multicultural societies like contemporary Australia there are many. Masculinities vary between cultural groups such as Greek and 'Anglo' boys, between rural and urban groups, and between the rich and the poor.
Multiple masculinities are also found within any given setting such as a workplace or peer group. Different ways of being masculine, or 'doing' masculinity, are evident everywhere.
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All masculinities are not equal. Some are honoured more than others (e.g. the masculinities of sporting heroes), some are marginalised (e.g. the masculinities of disempowered ethnic minorities), and others are actively dishonoured in modern Western culture (e.g. homosexual masculinities).
The dominant form of masculinity in any given setting is called the hegemonic masculinity. It is hegemonic not only within the gender order (asserting power and privilege by men over women) but also among masculinities. Though others persist alongside it, hegemonic masculinity is highly visible and has cultural authority and leadership, even when it is uncommon (e.g. at school, a few highly influential boys may be admired by many 'followers'). Thus a hierarchy of masculinities describes the unequal shares of privilege held by different groups of men.
Masculinities, like femininities, operate at various levels. Individually, we make choices about our dress, manner and behaviour. As a consequence, a man or woman may be described as 'masculine' for presenting or behaving in ways deemed appropriate for men.
Collectively, masculinities are defined and sustained in institutions such as corporations and schools, where particular values and behaviours are either supported or marginalised. Aggressive masculinity can be promoted organisationally in some sports through structural patterns of competition and training, and strict hierarchies of levels and rewards. The media circulates images of this masculinity on an enormous scale, compounding its influence.
Impersonally, masculinities are promoted through culture. For example, some video and computer games not only promote images of violent masculinity, they actually require participants to enact it in order to play.
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Masculinities are not fixed. They are actively constructed and changing patterns of social practice, created as people act in ways that they see as appropriately masculine, from conversation to criminal activity, from sport to sex, from violence to vulnerability.
Masculinities are complex, rather than simple, homogeneous patterns. They often involve contradictory desires and logics that can become sources of tension and change in gender behaviour. A man may fear loss of authority and control within his family, but desire closer relationships with his children. Change may involve challenging beliefs that some men hold dear.
Masculinities are changeable and dynamic. Since any particular masculinity
has been itself constructed, it may also be deconstructed, contested and even
replaced. The dynamic nature of masculinities is an important issue for educators
as it offers the possibility of changed gender relations and better outcomes
for both boys and girls.
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© The State of Queensland (Department of Education, Training and the Arts) 2002.
